Foundationalist Response to Skepticism

Proving an argument is one of the main questions in philosophy. There are several theories of justification that uses different approaches to our â€Å"belief system†. The aim of all theories was to find ways to justify truth. An entire philosophical movement tried to work out a strategy and universal philosophical methodology in order to find solutions for current philosophical problems. A branch of philosophy that deals with knowledge development and such notions as truth, belief and justification and its structure is called epistemology.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Foundationalist Response to Skepticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There are four basic theories in epistemology that raise the question of the structure of justification. They are infinitism (suggest a linear or infinite structure of justification), foundationalism (suggests a finite linear structure), coherent theory (the basis is a circular structure of justification) and skepticism (does not offer the structure of justification or, in other words, it is also called an empty structure of justification). The two theories that are in confrontation are foundamentalism and skepticism. Those to theories tend to â€Å"argue each other† and block these arguments. In order to solve this problem, a proper analysis of foundamentalists and skepticism theories should be done through the comparison and analysis of their arguments. There are several forms of skepticism. In the Western philosophy, skepticism is a theory that there is no any kind of certain knowledge. It is based on two principles: the first one says that one cannot be sure in his/her knowledge and there is not certain human knowledge; the second principle claims that all we know can only be â€Å"probably true† and one cannot be sure of anything. According to Marcus Lammernant,† in contemporary analytical epistemology, skeptica l problem is taken to be theoretical in nature. They are composed of skeptical argument for the impossibility of knowledge or justified belief† (Greco 9). In other words, skepticism is based on a doubt. For, example, if somebody is telling me about some issue, I can have my doubts that one’s arguments are true. The main skeptical argument is that certain knowledge implies certainty, one cannot be certain of anything, consequently, one cannot know anything for sure. Thus, one can obtain certain knowledge only through doubt and testing. However, one should not confuse skepticism and nihilism. According to skeptical doubt, the truth is asserted and negotiated. Nihilists deny everything. It can be said that skepticism presupposes a constant search of solution for certain dilemma. Skepticisms can even adopt other theories in order to find this solution, â€Å"Accordingly, he might eagerly evaluate alternative theories in an attempt to dispel skeptical doubt† (Lipkin 8 11). Skeptic relies on a principle of â€Å"inferential justification† (Fumerton 55) in order to support skepticism.Advertising Looking for research paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Foundationalism is a theory that at some degree tends to defeat skeptical theory. According to foundamentalistic theory, all our knowledge should be grounded for beliefs in order to represent this knowledge, â€Å"every justified belief owes its justification ultimately to some belief that is noninferentially justified† (Fumerton 56). According to this theory, there are some basic beliefs and derived beliefs. Every assumption should be based on the other belief. There are also some beliefs that are more basic than others. The basic beliefs cannot be justified by some other beliefs, consequently, they can be called foundational. For example, if I know that I am a human and all people are mortal, then I am mortal too . The basic knowledge is that all people are mortal. Thus, only statement that cannot be argued can be considered a foundational. Thus, foundationalism presupposes a certain structure of knowledge where every belief is based on other belief. So, there should be some universal premises that can guarantee good reasons for some other claims, however, these premises do not require other reasons to support them. Thus, these premises can be considered to be â€Å"stopping points† for the argument. Foundationalism argues the infinite and circular structures of justification that promote the idea that reasoning can never justify anything. So, it uses the regress argument. Foundationalsim was argued for its statement about basic beliefs. There were some doubts whether this theory can really support the structure of knowledge and if there is a structure of knowledge. The structure of justification and the argument that there are basic beliefs became an augmentative point between founda tionalsim and skepticism. According to skepticism, a certain knowledge is impossible, consequently, there cannot be any basic knowledge or belief. In this, foundationalsim and skepticism are opposite. In practical usage, skepticism provides us with more possibility to argue our points of view. Certainly, there can be certain knowledge that cannot be based on some basic beliefs. For example, some people believe in â€Å"parallel worlds†, there are certain theories that can probably provide evidence of existence of these worlds. However, there is no basic knowledge that one can base his/her arguments on. Using a foundationalists theory, one will not be able to prove his/her idea. However, if one uses skeptical methods of doubting and justification, one can support his/her idea. Both of these theories deny each other. Skepticism claims that no statement is credible in fact, consequently, foundationalism is impossible. On the other hand, fountationalsim always tend to overcome sk eptical theories. It shows that skepticism is wrong only if one can dispel the skeptical arguments and doubts.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Foundationalist Response to Skepticism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There is an opinion that those two theories are â€Å"two sides of one coin†. The reason lies in the fact that skepticism uses a principle of inferential justification, at the same time, foundationalists use the same principle in order to promote classical foundationalism. So, skepticism can be treated as a form of the foundationalism. So, according to Lipkin: â€Å"A person adopts foundationalism when he believes that there exist unrevisable principles upon which to rest everything truly believed and valued. Certainty and necessity often are associated with foundational statement† (876). Nevertheless, foundationalist theory brings structure and order in knowledge and structure of reasons. It gives a clear understanding of what is truth and certainly. Skepticism does not give such a possibility. In foundationalism one statement should be based on one statement as well. In skepticism, one statement can be based on many other statements. This is an argument that gives a possibility to assume that foundationalism undermines the skeptical conclusion. Epistemology deals with justification and knowledge structure. There are several theories that suggest their vision on these issues. However, there are two theories that are absolutely contrary in their arguments about justification. Foundationalsim is based on assumption that all statement should be based on particular basic beliefs. In its turn, skepticism denies this assumption. Both of these theories undermine each other at some extend. Foundationalism gives structure and clarity and skepticism provides us with more freedom to support our arguments. Works Cited Greco, John. Oxford Handbook of Skepticism. New Y ork: Oxford University Press, 2008. Fumerton, Richard A. Metaepistemology and skepticism. Boston: Rowman Littlefield, 1995.Advertising Looking for research paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Lipkin, Robert Justin. â€Å"Beyond Skepticism, Foundationalism and the New Fuzziness: The Role of Wide Reflective Equilibrium in Legal Theory† Cornell Law Review 75 (1990): 811-877. Web. This research paper on Foundationalist Response to Skepticism was written and submitted by user Alani Shepherd to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Body Systems of Humans, Crayfish, Pigs, and Earthworms Essays

Body Systems of Humans, Crayfish, Pigs, and Earthworms Essays Body Systems of Humans, Crayfish, Pigs, and Earthworms Paper Body Systems of Humans, Crayfish, Pigs, and Earthworms Paper Body Systems of Various Organisms All organisms in the world have a range of systems and organs in their body. Some organisms may share similar body systems while others have absolutely nothing in common. Several of those organisms include humans, pigs, crayfish, and earthworms. From their mushy, gushy organs to their soft, gentle skin, you may think, â€Å"How are humans and pigs possibly alike? Or a crayfish and an earthworm? † In many ways they may not be, but in other ways, they are very much alike. The body systems that will be compared and contrasted of these organisms are the nervous, circulatory, reproductive, muscular, integumentary, digestive, excretory, and skeletal systems. The anatomy of a human is very complex with many body systems and organs. Those systems and organs help our body function and carry out everyday activities. Our brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and basic nerves help collect, transfer, and process information with the help of the nervous system. It helps command our body’s motor functions, the way that we move, and response to stimuli. Compared to a human, pigs have the same type of nervous system with the same parts and the same functions. As for a crayfish’s nervous system, it is composed of a ventral nerve cord fused with segmental ganglia, sup esophageal, and sub esophageal ganglia. The sup esophageal and sub esophageal ganglia control the head appendages in response to the sensory input received from receptors. An earthworm also has the same type nervous system as a human, just like a pig. As for the circulatory system, a human’s pumps blood to and from the body and lungs with the help of the heart, blood vessels, and arteries. A pig, however, has a heart, blood, blood vessels, lungs, and a circulatory mechanism. The heart, blood, blood vessels, and lungs have the same functions and structures as humans but the circulatory mechanism’s function is quite unique. Its circulatory mechanism circulates blood between the heart and the rest of the body except for the lungs. The crustaceous crayfish’s and squirming earthworm’s circulatory systems are the same as a human’s. Reproduction of a human involves the joining of a male sperm cell and a emale egg cell. The reproductive system of a male involves the testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the penis. As for the female, the ovaries, ovum, fallopian tube, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands are involved. A male uses his penis and deposits a sperm cell into a woman’s vagina and then the sperm travels up to fertilize her egg cell. The reproductive system of a pig is also the same as a human’s reproductive system. A crayfish has some similar bodily structures for reproduction as a human. A male has vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and a penis while a female has a fallopian tube, ovum, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands. The only difference from humans is that the fertilization of the egg occurs outside of the fish body. The female releases the egg and the male fertilizes it soon after it comes out. An earthworm’s reproduction is the most unique. It involves clitella’s in both males and females. They reproduce by two worms coming together  in opposite directions with their clitella’s in contact of their mating partners. A humanoid muscular system involves three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. All of these muscles work together to help our body move. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones, smooth muscles surround blood vessels and organs in our digestive system, and cardiac muscle is the muscle found only in the heart. As for a pig’s muscular system, it includes smooth muscle found in the digestive system and genital areas as well as on the walls of the blood vessels. The cardiac and skeletal muscles are the same and have the same functions as humans. All the muscles help give an extra layer of defense and protection within the said parts of the body. The crayfish’s muscular system covers parts of its legs, tail, and abdominal area. It is mainly just skeletal muscle and tissue that covers and protects the outer bone lining. Basically speaking, an earthworm has two muscles, circular and longitudinal, that allow for locomotion with the muscular system. They run throughout their entire bodies and also help with contraction. Integumentary systems of humans include the skin, nails, and hair. They act as the barrier between the body’s internal and external environments. A pig’s integumentary system is also the same as a humans’. The crayfish’s ntegumentary system consists of its outer shell and its gills. The shell keeps things out of its body and the gills allow them to breathe. An earthworm’s integumentary system controls many of the worm’s life processes. Its body absorbs oxygen from its surroundings and allows it to diffuse into the blood through the layered skin. The skin also activa tes sensitivity to light, touch, and other chemicals in its environment. Our mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, large intestine, small intestine, rectum, and anus come together to form the digestive system which breaks down our food into simpler molecules. The food enters through the mouth, travels down the esophagus, breaks down in the stomach, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder and then moves through the intestines down to the rectum and anus. A pig’s digestive system is no different than a human’s. A foregut, midgut, hindgut, and a digestive gland form the digestive system of a crayfish. The foregut contains the stomach (partially breaks the food down), the midgut is an extension of the foregut, the hindgut consists of the anus (releases the digested enzymes), and the digestive gland secretes enzymes that aid in the absorption of the digested products. As for an earthworm’s digestive system, it is partitioned into many regions, each with a certain function. It consists of the pharynx, the esophagus, the crop, the intestines, anus, and the gizzard. Food enters through the mouth, it’s swallowed by the pharynx, passes through the esophagus, moves to the gizzards where the food is completely broken down, and then travels through its intestines and down to the anus. Humans, like many other organisms, have excretory systems that remove wastes from our bodies. They include the skin, lungs, kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Our excretory system also helps us maintain homeostasis. The kidneys, aorta, kidney pylorus, ureters, bladder, and urethra make up the excretory system of pigs. Its waste removal process helps it maintain its fluid balance as well as processing protein absorption. A crayfish’s excretory organs are called the antennal glands because they are located at the base of the second antenna. They excrete the waste products of blood filtration and remove them from the body. An earthworm has niphridia, which are similar to kidneys, and nephridia, which are ventral pores that excrete waste in the excretory system. Unprocessed waste comes down to the niphridia and is then processed completely and removed through the nephridia. The human skeletal system includes our bones and tissues that aid in the support, protection, and movement of our body. A normal human skeleton consists of 206 bones; however, extra bones can form due excess amounts of tissue. Pig’s have the same type of skeletal system but have 216 bones rather than 206. A crayfish has a hard exoskeleton that protects and supports the body. It has 8 jointed walking legs, a segmented body, 2 pairs of sensory antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. These make up the skeletal system that supports, protects, and helps move the body. Earthworms don’t have a skeletal system for they are invertebrates and have no bones in their bodies at all. In conclusion, humans, pigs, crayfish, and earthworms all have body systems that are both unique and also different. Humans and pigs have the same nervous, reproductive, integumentary, digestive, and skeletal systems. Humans and crayfish both have an identical circulatory system while humans and earthworms have alike nervous and circulatory systems. Pigs and crayfish don’t have exactly alike systems but their circulatory systems both pump blood to their hearts and bodies in similar ways. As for pigs and earthworms, they have similar nervous systems that control motor functions as well as response to stimuli. Crayfish and earthworms have identical circulatory systems for blood filtration throughout the body. All of the body systems within a number of organisms are unique in their own way. Some organisms have similar body systems and body functions but all of them are different in one way or another. It could be size, color, configuration, location, name, etc. Overall, body systems are crucial in all organisms to carry out normal daily activity whether it’s a small ant, gigantic whale, or a normal five-foot human. References Addison, W. (2001, October 15). Earthworms. School of Arts amp; Sciences University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 27, 2011, from sas. upenn. edu/~rlenet/Earthworms. html Carpi, A. (1999, May 18). Basic Anatomy Organs amp; Organ Systems. Courses Pages. Retrieved November 27, 2011, from http://web. jjay. cuny. edu/~acarpi/NSC/14-anatomy. tm Devlin, E. (1990, July 19). Fetal Pig Dissection. people. hsc. edu. Retrieved November 27, 2011, from http://people. hsc. edu/faculty-staff/edevlin/edsweb01/new_page_14. htm Nale, M. (2004, September 8). The Crayfish Corner Information. mackers. com. Retrieved November 27, 2011, from http://mackers. com/crayfish/info. htm Nowicki, S. (2010). Biology Grades 9-12 Holt McDougal Biology Florida Orlando: Houghton Mifflin. T. , D. (2011, November 3). Earthworm Body Systems. Informed Farmers. Retrieved November 27, 2011, from informedfarmers. com/earthworm-body-systems/

Why its Important to Wear a Helmet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Why its Important to Wear a Helmet - Essay Example This trend is ought to continue should we not learn from our mistakes, it should be a top priority of any two wheeler rider or skateboarder to wear a helmet while riding in order to protect severe damage to the head leading to death in majority of the cases. "About 540,000 bicyclists visit emergency rooms with injuries every year. Of those, about 67,000 have head injuries, and 27,000 have injuries serious enough to be hospitalized." (Helmet Related Statistics). Looking at these statistics it becomes extremely important to practice caution and people who ignore heedless warnings pay the price leaving their family members behind to mourn and regret. All the above points show that wearing a helmet is integral and people who don't do it are very vulnerable. Parents play a vital role in inculcating the habit of wearing a helmet in children and this habit must always be inculcated in children right from the time when they learn to ride a tricycle. This is the only way out to stop the menace of countless deaths that take place because of sheer ignorance of people. Several countries have made it a hard and fast rule not to allow riders without helmets and many more countries are in the process to implement this rule. The sooner this rule is introduced the better it is for all the people. Works Cited Helmet Related Statistics (2009). In Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute http:/